1932

Abstract

The term “White privilege” has been used to denote specific privileges that White groups possess due to their Whiteness and White identity. In this article, firstly, I outline how, as a conceptual tool, White privilege can only be understood in relation to Critical Race Theory, specifically the notion that racism is central and endemic, through Whiteness as property and interest convergence. Secondly, I analyze the development of White privilege and provide ways forward for the use of the term, and thirdly, I use examples from higher education to outline how White privilege works in terms of the construction of knowledge, the prioritization of gender above race, and the fact that policy making is designed to protect White identities to uphold a hegemonic system of White supremacy.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-031021-123710
2023-07-31
2024-06-14
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/soc/49/1/annurev-soc-031021-123710.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-031021-123710&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Ahmed S. 2007. The phenomenology of whiteness. Feminist Theory 8:149–68
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Allen R. 2002. The globalization of white supremacy: toward a critical discourse on the racialization of the world. Educ. Theory 51:467–85
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Allen T. 1994. The Invention of the White Race, Vol. 1 London: Verso
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Anderson E 2015. The White space. Sociol. Race Ethn. 1:10–21
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Apple M 1998. Foreword. White Reign: Deploying Whiteness in America, ed. J Kincheloe, SR Steinberg, NM Rodriguez, RE Chennault ix–xiii. New York: St. Martin's Griffin
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Applebaum B. 2008. White privilege/white complicity: from “benefitting from” to “connecting to. .” Philos. Educ. 39:292–300
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Bartky S. 2002. Sympathy and Solidarity and Other Essays Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Bell D. 1980. Brown v. Board of Education and the interest convergence dilemma. Harv. Law Rev. 99:4–83
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Bell D. 1992. Faces at the Bottom of the Well: The Permanence of Racism New York: Basic
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Bell D. 2002. Ethical Ambition: Living a Life of Meaning and Worth New York: Bloomsbury
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Bell D. 2004. Silent Covenants: Brown v. Board of Education and the Unfulfilled Hopes for Racial Reform Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Bennett J, Driver M, Trent S. 2019. Real or ideal? A narrative literature review addressing white privilege in teacher education. Urban Educ. 54:891–918
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Bhopal K. 2016. The Experiences of Black and Minority Ethnic Academics: A Comparative Study of the Unequal Academy London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Bhopal K. 2018. White Privilege: The Myth of a Post-Racial Society Bristol, UK: Policy/Bristol Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Bhopal K. 2020. Confronting white privilege: the importance of intersectionality in the sociology of education. Br. J. Sociol. Educ. 41:807–16
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Bhopal K, Chapman T. 2019. International minority ethnic academics at predominantly white institutions. Br. J. Sociol. Educ. 40:98–113
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Bhopal K, Henderson H. 2019. Competing inequalities: gender versus race in higher educational institutions in the UK. Educ. Rev. 73:153–69
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Bhopal K, Myers M. 2023. Elite Universities and the Making of Privilege: Exploring Race and Class in Global Educational Economies London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Bhopal K, Pitkin C. 2020. Same old story, just a different policy: race and policy making in higher education in the UK. Race Ethn. Educ. 23:530–47
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Blum L. 2008. White privilege: a mild critique. Theory Res. Educ. 6:309–21
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Bonilla-Silva E 2001. White Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Bonilla-Silva E, Forman T. 2000.. “ I am not a racist but…”: mapping white college students’ racial ideology in the USA. Discourse Soc. 11:50–85
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Bonilla-Silva E, Goar C, Embrick D. 2006. When white folks flock together: the social psychology of whiteness. Crit. Sociol. 32:229–53
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Bridges K. 2019. White privilege and white disadvantage. Va. Law Rev. 105:449–64
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Brodkin K. 1999. How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says About Race in America. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Browne I, Misra J. 2003. The intersection of race and gender in the labor market. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 29:487–513
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Bush M. 2005. Breaking the Code of Good Intentions: Everyday Forms of Whiteness. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Butler P. 2020. Nearly half of BAME UK households are living in poverty. The Guardian June 30. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/jul/01/nearly-half-of-bame-uk-households-are-living-in-poverty
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Cabrera N. 2012. Working through whiteness: white male college students challenging racism. Rev. High. Educ. 35:375–401
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Cabrera N. 2014. Exposing whiteness in higher education: white male college students minimizing racism, claiming victimization and recreating white supremacy. Race Ethn. Educ. 17:30–55
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Cashin S. 2004. The Failures of Integration: How Race and Class are Undermining the American Dream New York: Public Aff.
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Chesler M, Peet M, Sevig T 2003. Blinded by the whiteness: the development of white college students’ racial awareness. White Out: The Continuing Significance of Racism A Doane, E Bonilla-Silva 215–30. London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Collins S. 2020. The anger behind the protests explained in four charts: Black men are still disproportionately likely to be killed by the police. Vox June 1. https://www.vox.com/2020/5/31/21276004/anger-police-killing-george-floyd-protests
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Creamer J. 2020.. Inequalities persist despite decline in poverty for all major race and Hispanic origin groups. America Counts: Stories Behind the Numbers US Census Bur., Sept. 15. https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2020/09/poverty-rates-for-blacks-and-hispanics-reached-historic-lows-in-2019.html
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Delgado R, Stefancic J. 2001. Critical Race Theory: An Introduction New York: NYU Press
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Delgado R, Stefancic J. 2012. Critical Race Theory: An Introduction New York: NYU Press. , 2nd ed..
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Delgado R, Stefancic J, eds. 2000. Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Delgado Bernal D, Villalpando O 2010. An apartheid of knowledge in academia: the struggle over the “legitimate” knowledge of faculty of color. Equity Excel. Educ. 35:2169–80
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Denton N. 2001. The role of residential segregation in promoting and maintaining inequality in wealth and poverty. Indiana Law Rev. 34:1198–211
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Dhaliwal T, Chin M, Lovinson V, Quinn D. 2020. Educator bias is associated with racial disparities in student achievement and discipline. Brookings Brown Center Chalkboard Blog July 20. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/2020/07/20/educator-bias-is-associated-with-racial-disparities-in-student-achievement-and-discipline/
    [Google Scholar]
  41. DiAngelo R. 2006. The production of whiteness in education: Asian international students in a college classroom. Teach. Coll. Rec. 108:1983–2000
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Doane A, Bonilla-Silva E, eds. 2003. White Out: The Continuing Significance of Racism London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Dyer R. 1997. White London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Feagin J. 2001. Racist America: Roots, Current Realities and Future Reparations London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Feagin J. 2020. The White Racial Frame London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Feagin J, O'Brien E. 2003. White Men on Race Boston: Beacon
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Feagin J, Vera H. 1995. White Racism London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Flagg B. 2005. Whiteness as metaprivilege. Wash. Univ. J. Law Policy 18:1–10
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Frankenberg R. 1993. White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness Minneapolis: Univ. Minn. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Frankenberg R 1997. Displacing Whiteness: Essays in Social and Cultural Criticism Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Gillborn D. 2005. Education policy as an act of white supremacy: whiteness, critical race theory and educational reform. J. Educ. Policy 20:485–505
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Gillborn D. 2008. Racism and Education: Coincidence or Conspiracy London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Gillborn D. 2016. Softly, softly: genetics, intelligence and the hidden racism of the new genism. J. Educ. Policy 31:365–88
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Gillborn D, Bhopal K, Crawford C, Demack S, Gholami R et al. 2021. Evidence for the Commission on Ethnic and Race Disparities Rep. Univ. Birmingham Cent. Res. Race Educ. Birmingham, UK:
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Giroux H. 1997a. Channel Surfing: Race Talk and the Destruction of Today's Youth New York: St. Martin's
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Giroux H 1997b. Racial politics and the pedagogy of whiteness. Whiteness: A Critical Reader M Hill 294–315. New York: NYU Press
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Giroux H. 1997c. Rewriting the discourse of racial identity: towards a pedagogy and politics of whiteness. Harv. Educ. Rev. 67:285–320
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Gotham K. 2000. Urban space, restrictive covenants and the origins of racial residential segregation in a US city, 1900–50. Int. J. Urban Reg. Res. 24:616–33
    [Google Scholar]
  59. [Google Scholar]
  60. Gusa D. 2010. White institutional presence: the impact of whiteness on campus climate. Harv. Educ. Rev. 80:464–89
    [Google Scholar]
  61. Harper S, Davis C. 2012. They (don't) care about education: a counternarrative on Black male students’ responses to inequitable schooling. Educ. Found. 26:103–20
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Harris C. 1993. Whiteness as property. Harv. Law Rev. 106:1707–971
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Hart M 2001. Transforming boundaries of power in the classroom: learning from la mestiza. Power and Practice: Adult Education and the Struggle for Knowledge and Power RM Cervero, AL Wilson 29–45. New York: Wiley
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Hartigan J. 2005. Odd Tribes: Toward a Cultural Analysis of White People Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Hartigan J. 2008. Class predicaments of whiteness in Detroit. Sci. Cult. 17:163–93
    [Google Scholar]
  66. Henehan K, Rose H. 2018. Opportunities knocked? Exploring pay penalties among the UK's ethnic minorities London: Resolut. Found.
    [Google Scholar]
  67. hooks b. 1997. Representing Whiteness in the Black imagination. Displacing Whiteness: Essays in Social and Cultural Criticism R Frankenberg 165–79. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Hunter M. 2002. Rethinking epistemology and racism: or is white sociology really dead?. Race Soc. 5:119–38
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Hurtado A. 1996. The Color of Privilege: Three Blasphemies on Race and Feminism Ann Arbor: Univ. Mich. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Hytten K, Adkins A. 2001. Critical race feminism and the complex challenges of educational reform. Educ. Theory 51:433–50
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Ignatiev N. 1995. How The Irish Became White London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Ignatiev N, Garvey J, eds. 1996. Race Traitor London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  73. IRR (Inst. Race Relat.) 2020. BME statistics on poverty and housing and employment Rep. Inst. Race Relat. London: https://irr.org.uk/research/statistics/poverty/
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Kincheloe J, Steinberg S 1998. Addressing the crisis of whiteness: reconfiguring white identity in a pedagogy of whiteness. White Reign: Deploying Whiteness in America JL Kincheloe, SR Steinberg, NM Rodriguez, RE Chennault 3–29. New York: St. Martin's Griffin
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Kubota R. 2020. Confronting epistemological racism, decolonizing scholarly knowledge: race and gender in applied linguistics. Appl. Linguist. 41:712–32
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Ladson-Billings G 2000. Racialized discourses and ethnic epistemologies. Handbook of Qualitative Research N Denzin, Y Lincoln 257–77. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Lammy D. 2017. The Lammy review: an independent review into the treatment of, and outcomes for, Black, Asian and minority ethnic individuals in the criminal justice system Rep. Lammy Rev. and Minist Justice, London:
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Latour B. 1999. On recalling ANT. Sociol. Rev. 47:15–25
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Lee S. 2005. Up Against Whiteness: Race, School, and Immigrant Youth New York: Teach. Coll. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Leonardo Z. 2004. The color of supremacy: beyond the discourse of “white privilege. .” Educ. Philos. Theory 36:137–52
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Leonardo Z. 2009. Race, Whiteness and Education London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Lipsitz G. 1998. The Possessive Investment in Whiteness Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Lund M. 2022. Whiteness Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Marmot M. 2020. Health Equity in England London: Health Found.
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Marx S, Pennington J. 2010. Pedagogies of critical race theory: experimentations with white preservice teachers. Teach. Educ. 45:216–29
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Massey D, Denton N. 1993. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  87. McCann K. 2007. Rhetoric of whiteness: the critical theories of whiteness Paper presented at National Communication Association 93rd Annual Convention Chicago: Nov. 15–18
    [Google Scholar]
  88. McIntosh P 1992. White privilege and male privilege: a personal account of coming to see correspondences through work in women's studies. Race, Class and Gender: An Anthology M Andersen, P Collins 70–81. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
    [Google Scholar]
  89. McIntosh P. 2001. White privilege: unpacking the invisible knapsack. Race, Class and Gender in the United States: An Integrated Study P Rothenberg 50–62. New York: Worth
    [Google Scholar]
  90. McIntyre A. 1997. Making Meaning of Whiteness: Exploring Racial Identity with White Teachers Albany: State Univ. N. Y. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  91. McKinsey & Co 2022. Race in the workplace: the frontline experience Rep. McKinsey & Co. New York: https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/diversity-and-inclusion/race-in-the-workplace-the-frontline-experience
    [Google Scholar]
  92. McLaren P. 1995. Critical Pedagogy and Predatory Culture: Oppositional Politics in a Postmodern Era London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  93. McLaren P. 1997. Revolutionary Multiculturalism: Pedagogies of Dissent for a New Millennium Boulder, CO: Westview
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Mills C. 1997. The Racial Contract Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Monk E. 2013. Color, bodily capital, and ethnoracial division in the U.S. and Brazil PhD Thesis Univ. Calif. Berkeley:
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Monte L, Perez-Lopez D. 2021. COVID-19 pandemic hit Black households more than white households, even when pre-pandemic socio-economic disparities are taken into account. America Counts: Stories Behind the Numbers US Census Bur. July 21. https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/07/how-pandemic-affected-black-and-white-households.html
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Mueller J. 2017. Producing colorblindness: everyday mechanisms of white ignorance. Soc. Probl. 64:219–38
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Myers M. 2020. An inheritance of exclusion: Roma education, genetics and the turn to biosocial solutions. Res. Educ. Theory Policy Practice 107:55–71
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Myers M. 2022. Racism, zero-hours contracts and complicity in higher education. Br. J. Sociol. Educ. 43:584–602
    [Google Scholar]
  100. NYU 2020. Research shows Black drivers more likely to be stopped by police News Release, May 5 N. Y. Univ. https://www.nyu.edu/about/news-publications/news/2020/may/black-drivers-more-likely-to-be-stopped-by-police.html
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Oliver M, Shapiro T. 1995. Black Wealth, White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality. London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Omni M, Winant H. 1994. Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  103. ONS 2020. Coronavirus (COVID-19) related deaths by ethnic group, England and Wales: 2 March 2020 to 15 May 2020. Data Release UK Census 2021, June 19. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/articles/coronaviruscovid19relateddeathsbyethnicgroupenglandandwales/2march2020to15may2020
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Owen D. 2007. Towards a critical theory of whiteness. Philos. Soc. Criticism 33:203–22
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Preston J, Bhopal K 2012. Conclusion. Race and Intersectionality in Education K Bhopal, J Preston 213–20. London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Rich A. 1979. Disloyal to civilization: feminism, racism and gynephobia. Chrysalis 7:9–27
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Roediger D. 1991. The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class New York: Verso
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Roediger D. 1994. Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics, and Working Class History New York: Verso
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Rothenberg P 2002. White Privilege: Essential Readings on the Other Side of Racism New York: Worth
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Sheets R. 2000. Advancing the field or taking centre stage: the white movement in multicultural education. Educ. Res. 29:15–21
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Sleeter C. 1995. An analysis of the critiques of multicultural education. Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education J Banks, C Banks 81–94. New York: Simon and Schuster
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Sleeter C 1996. White silence, white solidarity. Race Traitor N Ignatiev, J Garvey 14–22. London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Sue D, Torino G, Capodilupo C, Rivera D, Lin A. 2009. How white faculty perceive and react to classroom dialogues on race: implications for education and training. Couns. Psychol. 37:1090–115
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Sullivan S. 2017. White priority. Crit. Philos. Race 5:171–82
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Tate W. 1997. Critical race theory and education: history, theory and implications. Rev. Res. Educ. 22:195–247
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Taylor B. 2008. Why white students need to learn about their own race. Diverse Issues High. Educ. 25:19–30
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Thompson B. 2001. A Promise and a Way of Life: White Antiracist Activism Minneapolis: Univ. Minn. Press
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Treolar N. 2020. Ethnic inequalities in Covid-19 are playing out again—how can we stop them? Rep. Runnymede Trust London: https://www.runnymedetrust.org/blog/ethnic-inequalities-in-covid-19-are-playing-out-again-how-can-we-stop-them
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Trounstine J. 2020. The geography of inequality: how land use regulation produces segregation. Am. Political Sci. Rev. 114:443–55
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Turner C, Myers S. 2000. Faculty of Color in Academe: Bittersweet Success Boston: Allyn and Bacon
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Warren J 2000. Masters in the field: white talk, white privilege and white biases. Racing Research: Researching Race, Methodological Dilemmas in Critical Race Studies FW Twine, J Warren 135–64. New York: NYU Press
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Wildman S 2000. Language and silence: making systems of privilege visible. Readings for Diversity and Social Justice, ed. M Adams, WJ Blumenfeld, CR Castañeda, HW Hackman, ML Peters, X Zúñiga 35–47. London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Wildman S. 2005. The persistence of white privilege. Wash. Univ. J. Law Policy 18:245–65
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Winant H 1997. Behind blue eyes. Off White: Readings on Race, Power, and Society M Fine, L Weiss, LC Powell, LM Wong 40–53. London: Routledge
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Wise T. 2007. White Like Me: Reflections on Race from a Privileged Son New York: Soft Skull
    [Google Scholar]
  126. YMCA 2020. Young, discriminated, and Black: the true colour of institutional racism in the UK Press Statement YMCA, London: https://www.ymca.org.uk/press-statements/young-discriminated-and-black
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Zwysen W, Di Stasio V, Heath A. 2020. Ethnic penalties and hiring discrimination: comparing notes from observational studies with field experiments in the UK. Sociology 55:263–82
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-soc-031021-123710
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error